Book Review: Foundational Concepts in Neuroscience

by David E. Presti

Published: (textbook reference)

Review published: September 2025

Important Concepts & Definitions (Quick-Reference)

• Neuron: The core information-processing cell of the nervous system; integrates inputs and sends outputs via electrical impulses (action potentials).
• Glia: Support cells. Astrocytes (metabolic support, neurotransmitter uptake), oligodendrocytes (CNS myelin), Schwann cells (PNS myelin), microglia (immune defense).
• Gray vs. White Matter: Gray = neuron cell bodies/synapses; White = myelinated axon tracts.
• CNS/PNS: Central nervous system (brain, spinal cord); peripheral nervous system (nerves and ganglia outside the CNS).
• Resting Membrane Potential (~–70 mV): Voltage difference across the neuronal membrane due to ion gradients (Na⁺, K⁺, Cl⁻) and selective permeability.
• Ion Channels & Pumps: Proteins that allow ions to cross membranes (e.g., voltage-gated Na⁺/K⁺ channels) and restore gradients (Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase pump).
• Action Potential: All-or-none electrical spike caused by rapid Na⁺ influx and K⁺ efflux; propagates along axons to signal downstream neurons.
• Myelin & Saltatory Conduction: Insulation that speeds conduction by letting impulses “jump” between nodes of Ranvier.
• Synapse: Junction where a presynaptic neuron releases neurotransmitter to influence a postsynaptic cell; can be chemical (via vesicles) or electrical (gap junctions).
• Neurotransmitter: Chemical messenger released at synapses; binds receptors to excite or inhibit postsynaptic targets.
• Glutamate (Glu): Primary excitatory neurotransmitter; key in plasticity and learning (e.g., NMDA/AMPA receptors).
• GABA: Primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain; increases Cl⁻ conductance to hyperpolarize neurons.
• Acetylcholine (ACh): Attention, learning, REM sleep; neuromuscular junction contraction; receptors: nicotinic (ionotropic) & muscarinic (metabotropic).
• Dopamine (DA): Reward, motivation, movement; VTA–nucleus accumbens (reward), substantia nigra–striatal pathway (motor control). Dysregulation in addiction/Parkinson’s.
• Serotonin (5-HT): Mood, appetite, sleep, cognition; many receptor subtypes. Target of SSRIs in depression/anxiety.
• Norepinephrine (NE): Arousal, attention, stress responses; locus coeruleus projections broadly modulate cortex.
• Endocannabinoids: Retrograde lipid messengers (e.g., anandamide) that modulate synaptic release; target CB1 receptors.
• Opioid Peptides: Endogenous pain modulation and reward (endorphins, enkephalins); act at μ, κ, δ receptors.
• Agonist / Antagonist: Agonist activates a receptor; antagonist blocks it. Partial agonists produce submaximal activation.
• Tolerance & Dependence: Diminished drug effect with repeated use (tolerance); physiological adaptation leading to withdrawal on cessation (dependence).
• Synaptic Plasticity: Activity-dependent changes in synaptic strength—basis for learning/memory.
• LTP / LTD: Long-term potentiation (strengthening) and long-term depression (weakening) of synapses; often NMDA-dependent and Ca²⁺-mediated.
• Hebbian Learning: “Neurons that fire together wire together.” Co-activation strengthens connections.
• Short-Term / Working Memory (STM/WM): Temporary holding/manipulation of information over seconds to minutes; strongly linked to prefrontal cortex networks.
• Long-Term Memory (LTM): Durable storage (hours–years). Includes declarative (episodic, semantic) and nondeclarative (procedural/skills, priming, conditioning).
• Hippocampus: Consolidation of declarative memories and spatial mapping; damage → anterograde amnesia.
• Amygdala: Emotional salience and fear learning; tags memories with affective value.
• Basal Ganglia: Action selection, habit formation, reward-based learning; includes striatum, globus pallidus, substantia nigra.
• Cerebellum: Coordination, timing, motor learning; also contributes to cognitive prediction models.
• Prefrontal Cortex (PFC): Executive functions—planning, inhibition, working memory, decision-making.
• Thalamus: Sensory relay hub (except olfaction) to cortex; key in attention and consciousness states.
• Hypothalamus: Homeostasis and drives (hunger, thirst, temperature, reproduction); controls endocrine output via pituitary.
• HPA Axis: Hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal stress pathway; cortisol mobilizes energy, chronically can impair hippocampal plasticity.
• Reward Prediction Error (DA): Dopamine bursts encode outcomes better than expected; dips encode worse-than-expected—drives learning.
• Perception & Sensation: Sensation = transduction of physical energy by receptors; perception = brain’s interpretation/construct of that input.
• Top-Down vs. Bottom-Up: Bottom-up (stimulus-driven) vs. top-down (expectation/attention/prior knowledge) influences on perception.
• Attention: Selection of information for prioritized processing; guided by PFC–parietal networks and modulatory systems (ACh, NE).
• Neurogenesis: New neuron formation—limited in adult brain (e.g., dentate gyrus of hippocampus) and modulated by experience/stress.
• Sleep & Memory: NREM/slow-wave sleep supports consolidation of declarative memory; REM implicated in emotional/motor memory and integration.
• Critical Periods: Developmental windows of heightened plasticity (e.g., vision, language); experience sculpts stable circuitry.
• Neurodevelopment: Neural tube → proliferation, migration, differentiation, synaptogenesis, pruning, myelination.
• Neurodegeneration: Progressive neuronal loss (e.g., Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s); involves protein misfolding, oxidative stress, inflammation.
• Brain–Body Interaction: Bidirectional links via autonomic, endocrine, and immune systems; gut–brain axis influences mood and cognition.
• Computational Coding (very high-level): Rate coding (firing frequency), temporal coding (spike timing), population coding (ensembles carry meaning).

What I Learned / My Take

The book—and my module notes—tie the big picture to the molecular details: ions create signals; synapses sculpt networks; modulators (dopamine, serotonin, acetylcholine, norepinephrine) set system-wide “modes” for attention, learning, motivation, and mood. Memory emerges from plasticity distributed across hippocampus, cortex, basal ganglia, and cerebellum; stress and sleep strongly gate how well those plastic changes consolidate. With these definitions in hand, research papers and news about the brain become far easier to decode.

Would I recommend it?
Yes—especially if you want a clear scaffold for neuroscience terms and how they interlock. It’s a strong base for courses, clinical reading, or everyday curiosity about the brain.

Memorable Principles (one-liners to remember)

• “Neurons that fire together wire together.” (Hebbian plasticity)
• “What you attend to, you learn.” (Attention gates plasticity)
• “Sleep is memory’s editor.” (Consolidation needs rest)
• “Stress helps in bursts, harms in floods.” (HPA axis & plasticity)
• “Reward teaches by surprise.” (Dopamine prediction error)
• “Use it or lose it.” (Train your brain)